Group Members: Kristen Paruginog | Joann Ramos | Mayency Prieto | Joseph Perna | Tiffanie Petett
History and core assumptions:
In 1980, Ajzen and Fishbein formulated the theory of reasoned action, also known as TRA. The Theory of Reasoned Action suggests that a person's behavior is determined by his/her intention to perform the behavior and that this intention is, in turn, a function of his/her attitude toward the behavior and his/her subjective norm. The best predictor of behavior is intention. Intention is the cognitive representation of a person's readiness to perform a given behavior, and it is considered to be the immediate antecedent of behavior. This intention is determined by three things: their attitude toward the specific behavior, their subjective norms and their perceived behavioral control. The theory of planned behavior holds that only specific attitudes toward the behavior in question can be expected to predict that behavior. Below is the conceptual model of the theory which provides a visual of the core assumptions of the theory.
Source: Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, p. 179-211.
-Mayency Prieto-
My summary is based on a research study conducted by Rebecca L. Murphy, Perceived Effectiveness of Anti-tobacco Advertisements Among College Students. The study was conducted in 2003, but even today there are still lingering concerns about smoking among young adults, 18-24 years old. A report by the Surgeon General in 1964, Reducing the Health Consequences of Smoking, was the first official recognition that smoking was a primary cause of lung cancer and other serious illnesses in both men and women. In 1964, 52% of men and 42% of women were cigarette smokers. By 2002, one in four adults was considered a habitual cigarette smoker.
In her study, Murphy (2003) states clearly that, “The purpose of this study was to determine whether anti-tobacco advertisements are perceived to be efficient in reducing smoking among college students” (p. 3). Students were surveyed before and after watching specific anti-tobacco advertisements that were classified into three separate groups. The advertisement classifications were distinguished by social norms, health consequences and tobacco industry manipulation. With this purpose in mind, Murphy proposes two important questions that may help to increase awareness and educate others about the perceptions of young adults towards anti-tobacco advertisements. The first question was whether college students found these advertisements effective in shaping anti-smoking attitudes and beliefs and increasing knowledge about smoking? The second question was which category of anti-tobacco advertisements did these students perceive to be most effective? The study was conducted in two cities, Buffalo New York, and Atlanta Georgia. Murphy took a sample size of 1,020 students from two four year institutions and exposed them to the random selection of anti-tobacco advertisements.
The Theory of Reasoned Action is based on a person’s intention to perform a specific behavior. Behavioral intention is influenced by three factors; belief and attitude toward the behavior, influence of the social environment, and perceived behavioral control. The theory serves as a foundation to illustrate that attitude towards advertisements reflects attitudes towards the product being advertised. Particularly, the theory helps in predicting behavior performed by the consumer by first determining the consumer’s attitude towards smoking. So, by using this theory we can better understand how attitudes about smoking will motivate purchasing behavior.
The overall results showed that the social norms classification that included advertisements that depict smoking as irrational and “uncool,” weakened the perception that smoking is normative. In the health consequences classification of advertisements in which the students were shown ads depicting the health risks of smoking, the advertisements increased the perception of the risk severity of smoking. In the tobacco industry manipulation category of advertisements that highlighted the tobacco industry’s unethical marketing tactics was effective in increasing knowledge among consumers about how they capture attention from young adults. Health consequences ranked first in the persuasion of young adults not to smoke followed by manipulation of tobacco industry and social norms. After viewing advertisements primarily about health risks and manipulation of the tobacco industry an increase was found in the intention to quit smoking among the group of participants. It is important to also highlight that there were no statistically significant differences among demographic and class variables that would have created a biased conclusion.
The theory of Reasoned Action is primarily important in understanding how a person’s attitude will affect their intentions and ultimately their behavior. Our society can benefit greatly from this theory. Advertising has long been a pillar of media in which people obtain information that will affect their attitudes. If we use the media to inform the public about the harmful effects of smoking we can increase prevention in particular groups that may be more vulnerable. This study shows us which type of anti-tobacco advertising will be most effective in constructing a meaningful message.
This is an excellent study to understand The Theory of Reasoned Action and how it relates to our class.I am sure we have all come across some sort of anti tobacco campaign or commercial at some point.Everyone has a different opinion on smoking and these preconceived opinions affect how effective anti-tobacco campaigns are when we see them.According to The Theory of Reasoned Action, our belief system and our intent to perform a certain act is the strongest factor as to whether or not that act will be performed.If a smoker does not have any intention to quit, and does not truly believe that smoking will be harmful to his or her health, they already have a predetermined notion about smoking and it is likely the anti-tobacco campaign will have very little impact.
Murphy, Rebecca Lee (2002). Perceived effectiveness of anti-tobacco advertisements among college students. Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Utah, United States -- Utah. Retrieved June 10, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global.(Publication No. AAT 3070947). - Joseph Perna -
My article summary is on Kami Silk and Judith Weiner’s work entitled “ Gene Cuisine or Frankenfood? The Theory of Reasoned Action as an Audience Segmentation Strategy for Messages about Genetically Modified Foods.” The study occurred during 2005 and deals with public awareness of the presence of genetically modified foods in American supermarkets. The study explains why there is a lack of public awareness and uses the theory of reasoned action to further explain it. The article’s main purpose is to use the theory of reasoned action as a way to divide up the American population into different groups in order to best educate each group on the benefits and risks of genetically modified foods.
The article begins with an overview of the topic, the use of genetically modified foods and how the American public was ignorant to the arrival of the foods because it has never been required that they are labeled differently then naturally produced products. Awareness has definitely grown in recent years because of media exposure and is now becoming a more populated debated topic as more data is being discovered. The author notes the uncertainty of the people because “The risks and benefits beget controversy because the science surrounding the technology is young, without longitudinal studies to support the long-term effects of the technology on humans or the environment.” (Silk, 1) Silk states “According to the TRA, behavioral intention is determined by an individual’s attitude toward the behavior and by the subjective norm an individual perceives to exist in association with that behavior.” (2) Subjective norms are then touched upon, while noting that in the United States, there is not much to elaborate on because genetically modified foods have been rarely discussed in family or friend settings. Due to this lack of data, Silk claims, “European attitudes and American farmer attitudes might provide insight into the important influences on individuals’ normative beliefs pertaining to GM foods.” (5) The research developed 4 different clusters within the group who shared similar views on the topic. Cluster one was made up of 357 individuals and entitled ambivalent-biotech’s, which meant they were ambivalent in both their attitude and subjective norm regarding GM foods. Cluster 2 was made up of 50 people called antibiotechs, which meant they have a negative attitude and subjective norm in regards to GM foods. Cluster 3, made up of 329 people and called biotech-normers, which means they hold negative attitudes despite the positive norms they perceive to exist. Cluster 4 is comprised of the 122 biotech-individuals who hold positive views, but believe that negative social norms exist in regards to GM foods.
Silk, Kami, Judith Weiner, and Roxanne Parrot. "Gene Cuisine or Frankenfood? The Theory of Reasoned Action as an Audience Segmentation Strategy for Messages About Genetically Modified Foods." Journal of Health Communication 10.8 (2005): 751-767. EBSCO Host. Web. 9 June 2010. - Tiffanie Petett -
In the article I chose, researchers Hae-Kyong Bang, Alexander E. Ellinger, John Hadjimarcou and Patrick A. Traichal conduct a study regarding consumer concern, knowledge, belief and attitude toward paying a premium for renewable energy using the theoretical framework of the theory of reasoned action. The theory, at large, brings to mind the idea that the consumer’s environmental concern regarding renewable energy are primarily emotionally driven rather than fact-based. The purpose of this study is to find out whether or not there are relationships, positive or negative, between consumer concern for the environment, consumer knowledge and beliefs about renewable energy, and consumer willingness to pay more for renewable energy.
The theory of reasoned action posits intention as the best predictor of whether or not a behavior is performed. Applied by researchers Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen, three components are involved in the theory: behavioral intention, attitude toward the behavior and subjective norm. If an individual intends to participate in a certain behavior, and the outcome is more desirable than not, then it is highly likely that the person will do it. To add on, those intentions are guided by one’s attitude toward the behavior as well as the subjective norm, or the influence of one’s behavior as perceived in the larger context by the general public or society.
Primarily focusing on the process leading to attitude toward the behavior, researchers of the study came up with 5 hypotheses. The first proposing that “Consumers who are more concerned about the environment tend to be more knowledgeable about renewable energy than consumers who are not as concerned about the environment.” In short, those who are aware of the environment and its potential hazard upon us, show the most concern to help alleviate environmental issues.
A second hypothesis is relates to consumer willingness. It states that “consumers who express a higher level of concern about the environment are more likely to be willing to pay more for renewable energy than consumers who express a lower level of concern about the environment.” With that, another hypothesis can be drawn in stating that “consumers who have stronger beliefs about the positive consequences of using renewable energy tend to be more willing to pay a premium for renewable energy than consumers who have weaker beliefs about the positive consequences of using renewable energy.”
A fourth hypothesis states “consumers who are more knowledgeable about renewable energy tend to have stronger beliefs about the positive consequences of using renewable energy than consumers who are less knowledgeable about renewable energy.” This then draws in a final hypothesis that “consumers who are more knowledgeable about renewable energy tend to be more willing to pay more for renewable energy than consumers who are less knowledgeable about renewable energy.”
The implementation of the study began with a mail survey designed to gather information on respondents’ concern for the environment, their knowledge and beliefs about renewable energy, as well as their willingness to pay a premium for the renewable energy. A focus group was also conducted with 125 electricity consumers. A sample of 2600 residential electric bill payers was provided by a local electric utility in the southwest United States. The survey was administered in May of 1997, and resulted in a response rate of 13.4%, with 347 usable questionnaires included for analysis.
For the first hypothesis regarding concern about the environment and knowledge about renewable energy, respondents exhibited a very high level of concern for the environment with an average of 6 on a 7-point scale. With obvious concern for one’s health and the health of his/her children, these results are not surprising. However, consumer knowledge about renewable energy rated an average of 3 on the 7-point scale. Thus consumers who are more concerned about the environment were not necessarily more knowledgeable about renewable energy than consumers who are less concerned about the environment. Therefore, concern levels do not seem to associate with knowledge.
The results for the second hypothesis regarding concern for the environment and willingness to pay more for renewable energy show a positive relationship between a concern for the environment and a willingness to pay a premium for renewable energy.
The results for the hypothesis related to knowledge about renewable energy and beliefs about its positive consequences show that the level of knowledge about renewable energy is not significantly related to consumers’ beliefs about the positive effects of renewable energy.
Consumer willingness to pay more to use renewable energy show a positive correlation with consumer beliefs about the positive consequences of using renewable energy, as expected with the hypothesis. There also shows a positive relationship between knowledge and willingness to pay more to use renewable energy.
The researchers found that this study implicated the theory of reasoned action in that beliefs about renewable energy were positively related to attitude toward the act of paying more for renewable energy. It isn’t necessarily knowledge that enables consumers to create cognition's or beliefs about that value of using renewable energy. Thus consumers’ beliefs are developed through primarily an emotional trigger than a cognitive process. The study found that consumers' willingness to pay a premium for renewable energy was positively associated with many variables. Although consumers showed high levels of concern, they also exhibited relatively low levels of knowledge about renewable energy. To add on, results regarding concern and beliefs were found to be unrelated to consumer knowledge. These findings suggest that consumer beliefs about renewable energy may currently be driven more by emotion and sentimental factors than by cognitive processes. Thus, this research shows that persuasive marketing efforts should focus on building consumer knowledge through information-based campaigns that will lead to cognition and, in turn, to stronger beliefs about the consequences of using renewable energy.
Hae-Kyong Bang, Alexander E Ellinger, John Hadjimarcou, Patrick A Traichal.Psychology & Marketing. Hoboken: Jun 2000. Vol. 17, Iss. 6; p. 449.
Australian college students, Perri Timmons, Cynthia Gallois, Deborah Terry, Malcolm McCamish and Yoshihisa Kashima conducted a study involving the implications involved in the perception and attitude of engaging in unsafe sexual activity in the context of the assessment of the theory of reasoned action. The study, titled the Theory of Reasoned Action and the Role of Perceived Risk in the Study of Safer Sex, reflects upon literary and media sources affecting one’s perceived risk of the infection and the social context involvement in conjunction with the behavior. The purpose of the study is to explore the factors, both the individual and social, that contribute to ones intention and likelihood to engage in unsafe sexual activity.
Although various AIDS education programs and media campaigns have focused their efforts on stressing the susceptibility of the infection, there is still a lack of evidence that shows a strong correlation between perceived risk and safer sexual behavior. A study by Baldwin and Baldwin (1988) showed that a self-assessment of vulnerability to infection had very little impact to ones behavior.
The Theory of Reasoned Action describes intention as the best predictor of whether or not a health behavior is performed. Applied by researchers Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen, three components are involved in the theory; behavioral intention, attitude and subjective norm. If an individual intends to participate in a certain behavior, then it is highly likely that the person will do it. To add on, those intentions are guided by one’s attitude toward the behavior as well as the subjective norm, or the influence of one’s behavior as perceived in the larger context by the general public or society.
As mentioned, various literary and media sources affect individual perception of the perceived risk or one’s attitude of unsafe sexual activity and its implication among society or the general public (subjective norm). One hypothesis the students came up with was the that the perception of possible HIV infection along with the evaluation of HIV infection itself, contribute to one’s belief or personal assessment and attitude of the behavior of unsafe sexual activity. Moreover, a second involved the social aspect of engaging in such risky behavior in that those involved in the risky behavior of unsafe sexual activity are more likely to be pressure by society to make less risky behavior.
Some preliminary studies conducted by the group show that heterosexuals trust information about HIV and AIDS when most of it came form doctors or material produced by the government and the national AIDS council. However most information was found in newspapers and magazines. Another sample showed that gay men trust sources from which they receive the most information, including the gay press and from AIDS organizations in gay community.
The subjects in the study involved two major samples, one including a group of 71 male and 78 female undergraduate students, aged 17-21 years, all heterosexual. A second sample was made up of 85 heterosexual women, 85 heterosexual men and 82 gay men, all volunteers from the general community. Between 80 and 85% of the heterosexuals and 45% of gay men were in regular sexual relationships. 75% of the heterosexuals and 95% of gay men were unmarried. During the project using 7-point bipolar scales, the participants completed questionnaires and surveys that measured the individuals intentions to practice safer sex, their attitude and subjective norm toward safer sex, and perceived evaluations and likelihood beliefs about safer sex, as well as normative beliefs. Participants were also asked to specify which major sources of information they relied upon and trusted most. Lastly the participants were asked to indicate the number of people they knew who had been infected with or died of HIV or AIDS.
The results were fairly similar for all groups, despite some varying differences. In all, subjects in the study found that others, even those with the same sexual practices, were at greater risk for HIV/AIDS infection than they themselves were.For the some participants in the samples, the idea that STDs or HIV infection was an outcome of unsafe sexual activity was related to a stronger partner norm in favor of safer sex. However this correlation was not as significant for the younger participants, perhaps indicating a stronger likelihood for the older participants to be in a regular sexual relationship. For the gay men sample, much of their community was reported to have given quite a lot of information regarding the safety implications involved in unsafe sexual activity. These gay men rated their risk as higher than those whom were heterosexual, and, with that, risk influenced their norms, but not their attitude toward safe sex. In all the studies, the students found little correlation between an individuals perceived risk and their practice of safer sex. For at least the older people, risk was related to the sexual partner’s norm about safer sexual activity.
Varying perceptions of risk could potentially be significant in changing sexual behavior through promoting safer sex as a social norm. With that, the importance of AIDS educators to enforce a safer sex environment is essential. As studies have shown, the perceived risk does, in fact, affect ones tendency to engage in the behavior. Given the very high practice of safe sex by gay men, messages favoring safe sex do, indeed, have a major impact.
This study could potential be very applicable to situations in our everyday lives. As sexual concern and knowledge about the potential risk of the behavior become more widespread, we could begin to see a difference in the number of individuals and their partners infected; which could potentially decrease the number worldwide.
Perri Timmons, Cynthia Gallois, Deborah Terry, Malcolm McCamish and Yoshihisa Kashima. “Theory of Reasoned Action and the Role of Perceived Risk in the Study of Safer Sex.” International Series in Experimental Social Psychology (1993): 159-172. Pergamon Press. Web. 12 June 2010. - Kristen Paruginog -
Stop and give me forty push-ups! Most of us may be familiar with being subject to strenuous exercise after a team's loss or even as a means to reinforce authority. I noticed while researching this topic that the theory of reasoned action correlates with the theory of planned behavior. The article entitled, “Alternatives to Using Exercise as Punishment,” by Maura Rosenthal, Lydia Burak, and Karen Pagnano-Richardson discuss how athletic coaches use exercise as punishment in sports and physical education. Most of us are probably familiar with the idea which has taught us that when we fail during competitive sports or even dance, we may be subject to punishment. From professional football teams to high school soccer, coaches tend to use this method to instill in their players that success is key, and primarily to avoid losing. During this study, extensive exercise as a form of punishment is the topic of consideration. This article examines participant’s beliefs about the potential outcomes of using exercise as a punishment in an effort to better comprehend why individuals engage in this activity and why coaches prefer not to resort to this method as a form of punishment.
As we brainstorm about this topic, we must ask ourselves what these athletes learn about their sports, their teams, and about physical activity when their coaches use exercise as a form of punishment. Coaches may use exercise as punishment because it helps in the short term, to refocus athletes’ attention and stop bad behavior or even attitudes through my personal experience in sports and professional and competitive dance, this practice is certainly common.
“Nearly 82% of the participants in the Burak et al. (2009) study agreed that exercise as punishment can teach students there are consequences to their actions. And 69% percent of participants agreed that using exercise as punishment can help the coach establish authority.” When team members fail to succeed and perform well, coaches use extensive exercise to punish them. Television and movies often show this form of punishment during sports films, to include Remember the Titans and Jerry Maguire to name a few. Burak, Rosenthal, and Richardson, the three authors of this article, surveyed the use of exercise as punishment in a recent survey involving 273 undergraduate physical education majors and 65 non-majors. This study included a range of students from freshman to post-baccalaureate students. Female participants consisted of 42.5% of this study while males dominated the study with 57.5%. Most of these students noted that they have had played sports in some point in time during their lives. Interestingly enough, more than half of these participants mentioned they would probably utilize exercise as a method of punishment. Through my experience, I have been subject to exercise as punishment during my physical active career. Since childhood, I learned to respect coaches and teachers because they enforced rules I intended to abide by, and if these rules weren't followed consequences may follow. Even during competitive dance and sports, strenuous exercise was applied to athletes who failed to meet a common goal. Through utulizing this method it is intended to enforce authority and to focus the individuals attention to success.
This article also mentions the alternatives to using exercise as punishment after an athletic loss. One particular method may even be an open discussion between the players and the coach to review the game performance and to identify specific skills, strategies, or even fitness tactics that would improve the performance of each player. According to researchers, they have found that this method positively influences athlete autonomy and overall satisfaction with the sport experience (Reinboth & Duda, 2006).
In order to properly eliminate the practice of using exercise as punishment in sport settings, the profession must move beyond the consensus statements of national organizations that decry its use.
Maura, Rosenthal, Karen Pagnano-Richardson, Lydia Burak. "Alternatives to Using Exercise as Punishment." Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance Vol. 81, Iss. 5; pg. 44
- Joann Ramos -
The article I chose to summarize uses the Cultivation Theory and the Theory of Reasoned Action to determine if television viewing influence viewer’s attitudes on violence and whether or not this influence motivates viewers to take protective action against crimes. The article is titled Does Television Viewing Relate to Engagement in Protective Action Against Crime?:A Cultivation Analysis from a Theory of Reasoned Action Perspective by Robin L. Nabi and John L. which provides a step by step analysis on the methods, research and study organized by Nabi and Sullivan in order to answer the question.
Nabi and Sullivan first provides a brief explanation of both The Cultivation Theory and The Theory of Reasoned Action. By using previous research, they describe The Cultivation Theory as “the central claim of cultivation; that is, common conceptions of reality are cultivated by the overall pattern of programming to which communities are exposed regularly over long periods of time” (Nabi, Sullivan, 802). They then provide the background from Fishbein and Azjen, in 1975 to describe the Theory of reasoned Action as “the best predictor of volitional behavior as behavior intention. Behavioral intentions, in turn, are based on two types of cognitive antecedents: (a) attitudes toward performing a particular behavior and (b) the subjective norm surrounding that behavior.” (807) It is important to note that the study conducted by Nabi and Sullivan is not to test the Theory of Reasoned Action, but to use the theory as a guide to determine if there is a
correlation between television viewing and perceptions of violence and influence on protective measures.
By using a collection of past studies of Theory of Reasoned Action, Nabi and Sullivan were able to determine that the “analysis of TRA-based researched supports the model’s propositions that attitudes and subjective norms can accurately predict behavioral intentions and, in turn, behaviors, with evidence coming from contexts including condom use, exercise promotion, drug and alcohol use, testicular and breast self examinations, and women’s career choices.” So basically, Nabi and Sullivan used previous studies regarding TRA to validate that actions are greatly shaped by 1) a person’s attitude or intention regarding a specific behavior and 2) subjective norms (perceived expectations or consequences determined by variables, which in this case will be television).
After defining the theories in which will be used to guide their study, Nabi and Sullivan review the series of hypothesis they intend to prove, some of which include: “Hypothesis 1a: Amount of television viewing will be positively related to beliefs about the prevalence of crime and violence in society” and Hypothesis D states “Intentions to take protective measures will predict engagement in protection behaviors.” The study was conducted by surveying 262 undergraduate students whose ages ranging from 17 – 42 (a median range of 23 years old) and consisted of both male and female and a diverse racial combination. The survey asked students a series of factual and statistical questions such as the amount of time they spend watching television, members of household, perception on violence and also asked about how students would react in certain low level and high level violence situations.
The results of the survey was transformed into a model on where theory and mathematical computations yielded the following results: “The amount of television viewing was positively related to beliefs about prevalence of crime and violence in society, beliefs about prevalence of crime and violence in society was positively related to the attitude that the world is a mean place, the mean world attitude was positively related to intentions were positively related to engagement in protection behaviors.” The results did calculate that television did have a direct impact on violent attitudes in society, but the influence of protective actions were influenced by television directly, but more so on the “mean world attitude” which was cultivated from television.
Nabi, R., & Sullivan, J. (2001). Does Television Viewing Relate to Engagement in Protective Action Against Crime? A Cultivation Analysis From a Theory of Reasoned Action Perspective. Communication Research, 28(6), 802. Retrieved from Communication & Mass Media Complete database. Web. 10 June 2010
Theory of Reasoned Action
Group Members: Kristen Paruginog | Joann Ramos | Mayency Prieto | Joseph Perna | Tiffanie PetettHistory and core assumptions:
In 1980, Ajzen and Fishbein formulated the theory of reasoned action, also known as TRA. The Theory of Reasoned Action suggests that a person's behavior is determined by his/her intention to perform the behavior and that this intention is, in turn, a function of his/her attitude toward the behavior and his/her subjective norm. The best predictor of behavior is intention. Intention is the cognitive representation of a person's readiness to perform a given behavior, and it is considered to be the immediate antecedent of behavior. This intention is determined by three things: their attitude toward the specific behavior, their subjective norms and their perceived behavioral control. The theory of planned behavior holds that only specific attitudes toward the behavior in question can be expected to predict that behavior. Below is the conceptual model of the theory which provides a visual of the core assumptions of the theory.
Source: Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, p. 179-211.
-Mayency Prieto-
My summary is based on a research study conducted by Rebecca L. Murphy, Perceived Effectiveness of Anti-tobacco Advertisements Among College Students. The study was conducted in 2003, but even today there are still lingering concerns about smoking among young adults, 18-24 years old. A report by the Surgeon General in 1964, Reducing the Health Consequences of Smoking, was the first official recognition that smoking was a primary cause of lung cancer and other serious illnesses in both men and women. In 1964, 52% of men and 42% of women were cigarette smokers. By 2002, one in four adults was considered a habitual cigarette smoker.
In her study, Murphy (2003) states clearly that, “The purpose of this study was to determine whether anti-tobacco advertisements are perceived to be efficient in reducing smoking among college students” (p. 3). Students were surveyed before and after watching specific anti-tobacco advertisements that were classified into three separate groups. The advertisement classifications were distinguished by social norms, health consequences and tobacco industry manipulation. With this purpose in mind, Murphy proposes two important questions that may help to increase awareness and educate others about the perceptions of young adults towards anti-tobacco advertisements. The first question was whether college students found these advertisements effective in shaping anti-smoking attitudes and beliefs and increasing knowledge about smoking? The second question was which category of anti-tobacco advertisements did these students perceive to be most effective? The study was conducted in two cities, Buffalo New York, and Atlanta Georgia. Murphy took a sample size of 1,020 students from two four year institutions and exposed them to the random selection of anti-tobacco advertisements.
The Theory of Reasoned Action is based on a person’s intention to perform a specific behavior. Behavioral intention is influenced by three factors; belief and attitude toward the behavior, influence of the social environment, and perceived behavioral control. The theory serves as a foundation to illustrate that attitude towards advertisements reflects attitudes towards the product being advertised. Particularly, the theory helps in predicting behavior performed by the consumer by first determining the consumer’s attitude towards smoking. So, by using this theory we can better understand how attitudes about smoking will motivate purchasing behavior.
The overall results showed that the social norms classification that included advertisements that depict smoking as irrational and “uncool,” weakened the perception that smoking is normative. In the health consequences classification of advertisements in which the students were shown ads depicting the health risks of smoking, the advertisements increased the perception of the risk severity of smoking. In the tobacco industry manipulation category of advertisements that highlighted the tobacco industry’s unethical marketing tactics was effective in increasing knowledge among consumers about how they capture attention from young adults. Health consequences ranked first in the persuasion of young adults not to smoke followed by manipulation of tobacco industry and social norms. After viewing advertisements primarily about health risks and manipulation of the tobacco industry an increase was found in the intention to quit smoking among the group of participants. It is important to also highlight that there were no statistically significant differences among demographic and class variables that would have created a biased conclusion.
The theory of Reasoned Action is primarily important in understanding how a person’s attitude will affect their intentions and ultimately their behavior. Our society can benefit greatly from this theory. Advertising has long been a pillar of media in which people obtain information that will affect their attitudes. If we use the media to inform the public about the harmful effects of smoking we can increase prevention in particular groups that may be more vulnerable. This study shows us which type of anti-tobacco advertising will be most effective in constructing a meaningful message.
This is an excellent study to understand The Theory of Reasoned Action and how it relates to our class.I am sure we have all come across some sort of anti tobacco campaign or commercial at some point.Everyone has a different opinion on smoking and these preconceived opinions affect how effective anti-tobacco campaigns are when we see them.According to The Theory of Reasoned Action, our belief system and our intent to perform a certain act is the strongest factor as to whether or not that act will be performed.If a smoker does not have any intention to quit, and does not truly believe that smoking will be harmful to his or her health, they already have a predetermined notion about smoking and it is likely the anti-tobacco campaign will have very little impact.
Murphy, Rebecca Lee (2002). Perceived effectiveness of anti-tobacco advertisements among college students. Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Utah, United States -- Utah. Retrieved June 10, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global.(Publication No. AAT 3070947).
- Joseph Perna -
My article summary is on Kami Silk and Judith Weiner’s work entitled “ Gene Cuisine or Frankenfood? The Theory of Reasoned Action as an Audience Segmentation Strategy for Messages about Genetically Modified Foods.” The study occurred during 2005 and deals with public awareness of the presence of genetically modified foods in American supermarkets. The study explains why there is a lack of public awareness and uses the theory of reasoned action to further explain it. The article’s main purpose is to use the theory of reasoned action as a way to divide up the American population into different groups in order to best educate each group on the benefits and risks of genetically modified foods.
The article begins with an overview of the topic, the use of genetically modified foods and how the American public was ignorant to the arrival of the foods because it has never been required that they are labeled differently then naturally produced products. Awareness has definitely grown in recent years because of media exposure and is now becoming a more populated debated topic as more data is being discovered. The author notes the uncertainty of the people because “The risks and benefits beget controversy because the science surrounding the technology is young, without longitudinal studies to support the long-term effects of the technology on humans or the environment.” (Silk, 1) Silk states “According to the TRA, behavioral intention is determined by an individual’s attitude toward the behavior and by the subjective norm an individual perceives to exist in association with that behavior.” (2) Subjective norms are then touched upon, while noting that in the United States, there is not much to elaborate on because genetically modified foods have been rarely discussed in family or friend settings. Due to this lack of data, Silk claims, “European attitudes and American farmer attitudes might provide insight into the important influences on individuals’ normative beliefs pertaining to GM foods.” (5) The research developed 4 different clusters within the group who shared similar views on the topic. Cluster one was made up of 357 individuals and entitled ambivalent-biotech’s, which meant they were ambivalent in both their attitude and subjective norm regarding GM foods. Cluster 2 was made up of 50 people called antibiotechs, which meant they have a negative attitude and subjective norm in regards to GM foods. Cluster 3, made up of 329 people and called biotech-normers, which means they hold negative attitudes despite the positive norms they perceive to exist. Cluster 4 is comprised of the 122 biotech-individuals who hold positive views, but believe that negative social norms exist in regards to GM foods.
Silk, Kami, Judith Weiner, and Roxanne Parrot. "Gene Cuisine or Frankenfood? The Theory of Reasoned Action as an Audience Segmentation Strategy for Messages About Genetically Modified Foods." Journal of Health Communication 10.8 (2005): 751-767. EBSCO Host. Web. 9 June 2010.
- Tiffanie Petett -
In the article I chose, researchers Hae-Kyong Bang, Alexander E. Ellinger, John Hadjimarcou and Patrick A. Traichal conduct a study regarding consumer concern, knowledge, belief and attitude toward paying a premium for renewable energy using the theoretical framework of the theory of reasoned action. The theory, at large, brings to mind the idea that the consumer’s environmental concern regarding renewable energy are primarily emotionally driven rather than fact-based. The purpose of this study is to find out whether or not there are relationships, positive or negative, between consumer concern for the environment, consumer knowledge and beliefs about renewable energy, and consumer willingness to pay more for renewable energy.
The theory of reasoned action posits intention as the best predictor of whether or not a behavior is performed. Applied by researchers Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen, three components are involved in the theory: behavioral intention, attitude toward the behavior and subjective norm. If an individual intends to participate in a certain behavior, and the outcome is more desirable than not, then it is highly likely that the person will do it. To add on, those intentions are guided by one’s attitude toward the behavior as well as the subjective norm, or the influence of one’s behavior as perceived in the larger context by the general public or society.
Primarily focusing on the process leading to attitude toward the behavior, researchers of the study came up with 5 hypotheses. The first proposing that “Consumers who are more concerned about the environment tend to be more knowledgeable about renewable energy than consumers who are not as concerned about the environment.” In short, those who are aware of the environment and its potential hazard upon us, show the most concern to help alleviate environmental issues.
A second hypothesis is relates to consumer willingness. It states that “consumers who express a higher level of concern about the environment are more likely to be willing to pay more for renewable energy than consumers who express a lower level of concern about the environment.” With that, another hypothesis can be drawn in stating that “consumers who have stronger beliefs about the positive consequences of using renewable energy tend to be more willing to pay a premium for renewable energy than consumers who have weaker beliefs about the positive consequences of using renewable energy.”
A fourth hypothesis states “consumers who are more knowledgeable about renewable energy tend to have stronger beliefs about the positive consequences of using renewable energy than consumers who are less knowledgeable about renewable energy.” This then draws in a final hypothesis that “consumers who are more knowledgeable about renewable energy tend to be more willing to pay more for renewable energy than consumers who are less knowledgeable about renewable energy.”
The implementation of the study began with a mail survey designed to gather information on respondents’ concern for the environment, their knowledge and beliefs about renewable energy, as well as their willingness to pay a premium for the renewable energy. A focus group was also conducted with 125 electricity consumers. A sample of 2600 residential electric bill payers was provided by a local electric utility in the southwest United States. The survey was administered in May of 1997, and resulted in a response rate of 13.4%, with 347 usable questionnaires included for analysis.
For the first hypothesis regarding concern about the environment and knowledge about renewable energy, respondents exhibited a very high level of concern for the environment with an average of 6 on a 7-point scale. With obvious concern for one’s health and the health of his/her children, these results are not surprising. However, consumer knowledge about renewable energy rated an average of 3 on the 7-point scale. Thus consumers who are more concerned about the environment were not necessarily more knowledgeable about renewable energy than consumers who are less concerned about the environment. Therefore, concern levels do not seem to associate with knowledge.
The results for the second hypothesis regarding concern for the environment and willingness to pay more for renewable energy show a positive relationship between a concern for the environment and a willingness to pay a premium for renewable energy.
The results for the hypothesis related to knowledge about renewable energy and beliefs about its positive consequences show that the level of knowledge about renewable energy is not significantly related to consumers’ beliefs about the positive effects of renewable energy.
Consumer willingness to pay more to use renewable energy show a positive correlation with consumer beliefs about the positive consequences of using renewable energy, as expected with the hypothesis. There also shows a positive relationship between knowledge and willingness to pay more to use renewable energy.
The researchers found that this study implicated the theory of reasoned action in that beliefs about renewable energy were positively related to attitude toward the act of paying more for renewable energy. It isn’t necessarily knowledge that enables consumers to create cognition's or beliefs about that value of using renewable energy. Thus consumers’ beliefs are developed through primarily an emotional trigger than a cognitive process. The study found that consumers' willingness to pay a premium for renewable energy was positively associated with many variables. Although consumers showed high levels of concern, they also exhibited relatively low levels of knowledge about renewable energy. To add on, results regarding concern and beliefs were found to be unrelated to consumer knowledge. These findings suggest that consumer beliefs about renewable energy may currently be driven more by emotion and sentimental factors than by cognitive processes. Thus, this research shows that persuasive marketing efforts should focus on building consumer knowledge through information-based campaigns that will lead to cognition and, in turn, to stronger beliefs about the consequences of using renewable energy.
Hae-Kyong Bang, Alexander E Ellinger, John Hadjimarcou, Patrick A Traichal. Psychology & Marketing. Hoboken: Jun 2000. Vol. 17, Iss. 6; p. 449.
Australian college students, Perri Timmons, Cynthia Gallois, Deborah Terry, Malcolm McCamish and Yoshihisa Kashima conducted a study involving the implications involved in the perception and attitude of engaging in unsafe sexual activity in the context of the assessment of the theory of reasoned action. The study, titled the Theory of Reasoned Action and the Role of Perceived Risk in the Study of Safer Sex, reflects upon literary and media sources affecting one’s perceived risk of the infection and the social context involvement in conjunction with the behavior. The purpose of the study is to explore the factors, both the individual and social, that contribute to ones intention and likelihood to engage in unsafe sexual activity.
Although various AIDS education programs and media campaigns have focused their efforts on stressing the susceptibility of the infection, there is still a lack of evidence that shows a strong correlation between perceived risk and safer sexual behavior. A study by Baldwin and Baldwin (1988) showed that a self-assessment of vulnerability to infection had very little impact to ones behavior.
The Theory of Reasoned Action describes intention as the best predictor of whether or not a health behavior is performed. Applied by researchers Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen, three components are involved in the theory; behavioral intention, attitude and subjective norm. If an individual intends to participate in a certain behavior, then it is highly likely that the person will do it. To add on, those intentions are guided by one’s attitude toward the behavior as well as the subjective norm, or the influence of one’s behavior as perceived in the larger context by the general public or society.
As mentioned, various literary and media sources affect individual perception of the perceived risk or one’s attitude of unsafe sexual activity and its implication among society or the general public (subjective norm). One hypothesis the students came up with was the that the perception of possible HIV infection along with the evaluation of HIV infection itself, contribute to one’s belief or personal assessment and attitude of the behavior of unsafe sexual activity. Moreover, a second involved the social aspect of engaging in such risky behavior in that those involved in the risky behavior of unsafe sexual activity are more likely to be pressure by society to make less risky behavior.
Some preliminary studies conducted by the group show that heterosexuals trust information about HIV and AIDS when most of it came form doctors or material produced by the government and the national AIDS council. However most information was found in newspapers and magazines. Another sample showed that gay men trust sources from which they receive the most information, including the gay press and from AIDS organizations in gay community.
The subjects in the study involved two major samples, one including a group of 71 male and 78 female undergraduate students, aged 17-21 years, all heterosexual. A second sample was made up of 85 heterosexual women, 85 heterosexual men and 82 gay men, all volunteers from the general community. Between 80 and 85% of the heterosexuals and 45% of gay men were in regular sexual relationships. 75% of the heterosexuals and 95% of gay men were unmarried. During the project using 7-point bipolar scales, the participants completed questionnaires and surveys that measured the individuals intentions to practice safer sex, their attitude and subjective norm toward safer sex, and perceived evaluations and likelihood beliefs about safer sex, as well as normative beliefs. Participants were also asked to specify which major sources of information they relied upon and trusted most. Lastly the participants were asked to indicate the number of people they knew who had been infected with or died of HIV or AIDS.
The results were fairly similar for all groups, despite some varying differences. In all, subjects in the study found that others, even those with the same sexual practices, were at greater risk for HIV/AIDS infection than they themselves were.For the some participants in the samples, the idea that STDs or HIV infection was an outcome of unsafe sexual activity was related to a stronger partner norm in favor of safer sex. However this correlation was not as significant for the younger participants, perhaps indicating a stronger likelihood for the older participants to be in a regular sexual relationship. For the gay men sample, much of their community was reported to have given quite a lot of information regarding the safety implications involved in unsafe sexual activity. These gay men rated their risk as higher than those whom were heterosexual, and, with that, risk influenced their norms, but not their attitude toward safe sex. In all the studies, the students found little correlation between an individuals perceived risk and their practice of safer sex. For at least the older people, risk was related to the sexual partner’s norm about safer sexual activity.
Varying perceptions of risk could potentially be significant in changing sexual behavior through promoting safer sex as a social norm. With that, the importance of AIDS educators to enforce a safer sex environment is essential. As studies have shown, the perceived risk does, in fact, affect ones tendency to engage in the behavior. Given the very high practice of safe sex by gay men, messages favoring safe sex do, indeed, have a major impact.
This study could potential be very applicable to situations in our everyday lives. As sexual concern and knowledge about the potential risk of the behavior become more widespread, we could begin to see a difference in the number of individuals and their partners infected; which could potentially decrease the number worldwide.
Perri Timmons, Cynthia Gallois, Deborah Terry, Malcolm McCamish and Yoshihisa Kashima. “Theory of Reasoned Action and the Role of Perceived Risk in the Study of Safer Sex.” International Series in Experimental Social Psychology (1993): 159-172. Pergamon Press. Web. 12 June 2010.
- Kristen Paruginog -
Stop and give me forty push-ups! Most of us may be familiar with being subject to strenuous exercise after a team's loss or even as a means to reinforce authority. I noticed while researching this topic that the theory of reasoned action correlates with the theory of planned behavior. The article entitled, “Alternatives to Using Exercise as Punishment,” by Maura Rosenthal, Lydia Burak, and Karen Pagnano-Richardson discuss how athletic coaches use exercise as punishment in sports and physical education. Most of us are probably familiar with the idea which has taught us that when we fail during competitive sports or even dance, we may be subject to punishment. From professional football teams to high school soccer, coaches tend to use this method to instill in their players that success is key, and primarily to avoid losing. During this study, extensive exercise as a form of punishment is the topic of consideration. This article examines participant’s beliefs about the potential outcomes of using exercise as a punishment in an effort to better comprehend why individuals engage in this activity and why coaches prefer not to resort to this method as a form of punishment.
As we brainstorm about this topic, we must ask ourselves what these athletes learn about their sports, their teams, and about physical activity when their coaches use exercise as a form of punishment. Coaches may use exercise as punishment because it helps in the short term, to refocus athletes’ attention and stop bad behavior or even attitudes through my personal experience in sports and professional and competitive dance, this practice is certainly common.
“Nearly 82% of the participants in the Burak et al. (2009) study agreed that exercise as punishment can teach students there are consequences to their actions. And 69% percent of participants agreed that using exercise as punishment can help the coach establish authority.” When team members fail to succeed and perform well, coaches use extensive exercise to punish them. Television and movies often show this form of punishment during sports films, to include Remember the Titans and Jerry Maguire to name a few. Burak, Rosenthal, and Richardson, the three authors of this article, surveyed the use of exercise as punishment in a recent survey involving 273 undergraduate physical education majors and 65 non-majors. This study included a range of students from freshman to post-baccalaureate students. Female participants consisted of 42.5% of this study while males dominated the study with 57.5%. Most of these students noted that they have had played sports in some point in time during their lives. Interestingly enough, more than half of these participants mentioned they would probably utilize exercise as a method of punishment. Through my experience, I have been subject to exercise as punishment during my physical active career. Since childhood, I learned to respect coaches and teachers because they enforced rules I intended to abide by, and if these rules weren't followed consequences may follow. Even during competitive dance and sports, strenuous exercise was applied to athletes who failed to meet a common goal. Through utulizing this method it is intended to enforce authority and to focus the individuals attention to success.
This article also mentions the alternatives to using exercise as punishment after an athletic loss. One particular method may even be an open discussion between the players and the coach to review the game performance and to identify specific skills, strategies, or even fitness tactics that would improve the performance of each player. According to researchers, they have found that this method positively influences athlete autonomy and overall satisfaction with the sport experience (Reinboth & Duda, 2006).
In order to properly eliminate the practice of using exercise as punishment in sport settings, the profession must move beyond the consensus statements of national organizations that decry its use.
Maura, Rosenthal, Karen Pagnano-Richardson, Lydia Burak. "Alternatives to Using Exercise as Punishment." Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance Vol. 81, Iss. 5; pg. 44
- Joann Ramos -
The article I chose to summarize uses the Cultivation Theory and the Theory of Reasoned Action to determine if television viewing influence viewer’s attitudes on violence and whether or not this influence motivates viewers to take protective action against crimes. The article is titled Does Television Viewing Relate to Engagement in Protective Action Against Crime?: A Cultivation Analysis from a Theory of Reasoned Action Perspective by Robin L. Nabi and John L. which provides a step by step analysis on the methods, research and study organized by Nabi and Sullivan in order to answer the question.
Nabi and Sullivan first provides a brief explanation of both The Cultivation Theory and The Theory of Reasoned Action. By using previous research, they describe The Cultivation Theory as “the central claim of cultivation; that is, common conceptions of reality are cultivated by the overall pattern of programming to which communities are exposed regularly over long periods of time” (Nabi, Sullivan, 802). They then provide the background from Fishbein and Azjen, in 1975 to describe the Theory of reasoned Action as “the best predictor of volitional behavior as behavior intention. Behavioral intentions, in turn, are based on two types of cognitive antecedents: (a) attitudes toward performing a particular behavior and (b) the subjective norm surrounding that behavior.” (807) It is important to note that the study conducted by Nabi and Sullivan is not to test the Theory of Reasoned Action, but to use the theory as a guide to determine if there is a
correlation between television viewing and perceptions of violence and influence on protective measures.
By using a collection of past studies of Theory of Reasoned Action, Nabi and Sullivan were able to determine that the “analysis of TRA-based researched supports the model’s propositions that attitudes and subjective norms can accurately predict behavioral intentions and, in turn, behaviors, with evidence coming from contexts including condom use, exercise promotion, drug and alcohol use, testicular and breast self examinations, and women’s career choices.” So basically, Nabi and Sullivan used previous studies regarding TRA to validate that actions are greatly shaped by 1) a person’s attitude or intention regarding a specific behavior and 2) subjective norms (perceived expectations or consequences determined by variables, which in this case will be television).
After defining the theories in which will be used to guide their study, Nabi and Sullivan review the series of hypothesis they intend to prove, some of which include: “Hypothesis 1a: Amount of television viewing will be positively related to beliefs about the prevalence of crime and violence in society” and Hypothesis D states “Intentions to take protective measures will predict engagement in protection behaviors.” The study was conducted by surveying 262 undergraduate students whose ages ranging from 17 – 42 (a median range of 23 years old) and consisted of both male and female and a diverse racial combination. The survey asked students a series of factual and statistical questions such as the amount of time they spend watching television, members of household, perception on violence and also asked about how students would react in certain low level and high level violence situations.
The results of the survey was transformed into a model on where theory and mathematical computations yielded the following results: “The amount of television viewing was positively related to beliefs about prevalence of crime and violence in society, beliefs about prevalence of crime and violence in society was positively related to the attitude that the world is a mean place, the mean world attitude was positively related to intentions were positively related to engagement in protection behaviors.” The results did calculate that television did have a direct impact on violent attitudes in society, but the influence of protective actions were influenced by television directly, but more so on the “mean world attitude” which was cultivated from television.
Nabi, R., & Sullivan, J. (2001). Does Television Viewing Relate to Engagement in Protective Action Against Crime? A Cultivation Analysis From a Theory of Reasoned Action Perspective. Communication Research, 28(6), 802. Retrieved from Communication & Mass Media Complete database. Web. 10 June 2010